Stella M Barber

1905 - 1974

Story

Timeline

Map

Childbirth
Childhood
Clothing
Commerce
Communication
Diet
Education
Entertainment
Holidays
Household
Hygiene
Jim Crow Laws
Marriage
Medicine
Military
Politics
Religion
Transportation

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Stella M is born in Delaware, Indiana, United States

Indiana Becomes a center of the automotive industry in America

The first radio broadcast is sent from Massachusetts

The first Indianapolis 500 is held, soon to become one of the most prestegious event in auto racing

The RMS Titanic sinks after hitting an iceberg in the north Atlantic Ocean

America's first transcontinental highway is built

Notre Dame Football popularizes the forward pass

A large winter storm devastates the Great Lakes region

The Great War reaches Indiana

President Wilson creates a new agency to protect America's parks

Indiana becomes a dry state ahead of the rest of the nation.

The Spanish influenza pandemic strikes Indiana

Indiana bans the use of the German language

The KKK arrives in Indiana and becomes a major force

The 18th Amendment prohibits alcohol production in the United States

Women in the U.S. are granted the right to vote with the 19th Amendment.

Listeners tune in to public radio

John T. Scopes is accused of teaching evolution in a public school

Indiana passes even stricter Prohibition laws

Murder of Madge Oberholzer brings about fall of the Klan

A prominent American Socialist and leader of the Pullman Strike dies

Alexander Fleming discovers penicillin and revolutionizes the medical world

The Great Depression sees U.S. unemployment rate hit 25%

The Empire State Building is constructed in New York City.

Hoosiers elect liberal Democrat Paul McNutt as Governor

President Roosevelt passes New Deal programs to help revitalize the economy

"Public Enemy No. 1" begins his famous crime spree after being released from jail

Farmers abandon their lands after the Dust Bowl destroys crops and enhances economic strain caused by the Great Depression

Amelia Earhart disappears over the Pacific Ocean.

Flood devestates southern Indiana along the Ohio River

The United States joins the Allied cause against the Axis powers of Nazi Germany, Japan, and Italy

Over 11 million people are killed by the Nazis in organized genocide

Japanese planes attack Pearl Harbor naval base in Hawaii, killing 2,400 Americans

The U.S. drops the first atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

U.S. Senator Joseph McCarthy heads an aggressive campaign against American citizens with supposed Communist sympathies

Hoosiers mobilize for the Korean War

Polio Vaccine is presented to the public

Brown v. Board of Education desegregated all public schools in America.

Milan High School basketball team wins state championship

Hoosiers fight in Vietnam

Mother dies

The Soviet Union attempts to transfer nuclear weapons to Cuba

President John F. Kennedy is assassinated in Dallas.

The Civil Rights Act outlaws racial discrimination of African-American people in employment and education

271 are killed and over 1500 injured in tornado outbreak

The Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore becomes federally protected

Civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. assassinated in Memphis

Thousands traveled to upstate New York for the Woodstock Music and Art Festival.

American astronaut Neil Armstrong becomes first man to walk on the moon

The Jackson 5, an R&B group from Gary, become international superstars

A break-in at the Democratic Party offices is tied to President Richard Nixon

Stella M dies at age 68.

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Stella M born, 1905

Stella M was born on 17 November 1905, in Delaware, Indiana, United States. Her mother was Mary C Barber and was 39 years old when Stella M was born. Her father was William h Barber.

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Indiana, 1905

Located in the heart of the American Midwest, Indiana featured a flat, fertile terrain ideal for agriculture—particularly corn and soybean production. The continued growth of cities like Indianapolis and Gary also helped give Indiana a strong presence in steel manufacturing and other industries, spiking the state's population from roughly 2.5 million at the start of the 20th century to nearly 4 million by 1950.

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Automobile Industry, 1901 - 1937

1935 SJ LaGrande Dual-Cowl Phaeton produced by Dusenberg

Stella M's state stood as one one of the major centers of the automotive industry in the United States for more than 30 years, second only to Michigan. Numerous companies such as Studebaker, Marmon, Cole, Dusenberg, and others called Indiana their home during this era. The strength of the auto industry was largely the result of local inventors such as Elwood Haynes, who had spearheaded the development of the automobile. The strength of the iron and steel industries in the state also made producing automobiles uniquely cost effective.

Though many automakers were slow to adopt the mass production techniques of Henry Ford and found it difficult to compete, at its height, over 40 Indiana cities were involved in the auto industry. In 1911, the industry's heavy presence in the state gave birth to the Indianapolis 500, initially envisioned as a race where automakers could compete to see who produced the best vehicle. Unfortunately, the Great Depression, as well as the changing tastes of consumers, severely undermined the state's auto industry. By 1937, when Dusenberg closed its doors, many of the once-great companies had already shut down. Only Studebaker remained, and would continue to produce vehicles for several more decades.

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First Radio Broadcast, 1906

Reginald Fessenden

On Christmas Eve of 1906, the Canadian inventor Reginald Fessenden successfully executed the first radio broadcast—a Christmas concert sent out from a radio tower in Massachusetts to crews aboard United Fruit Company ships in the Atlantic Ocean. This was a major milestone in communication, and made news around the world. Soon, people like 0 year-old Stella M would be able to enjoy this new technology for communication, news, and entertainment.

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Childbirth

From the stages of pregnancy right through the birthing process, Stella M's mother had more options to available to her for safe, professional care than her own mother or grandmother had seen. Schools for medicine and nursing were becoming more common in Indiana, which translated to women having better access to prenatal and postnatal care. The majority of expectant mothers in the Hoosier state now delivered in a hospital instead of home, which helped to reduce the pain and inherent risks of the process. An expectant mother who delivered in a hospital had access to better birthing equipment, such as a variety of forceps and incubators, as well as improved forms of anesthesia, medications, and laceration repairs. As a result, infant mortality and maternal death from complications of childbirth saw a dramatic decline during Stella M's lifetime.

Even with the rise of hospital birthing, some mothers in Stella M's town still elected to give birth at home, sometimes with a midwife. As many Indianans moved to urban areas, physician-attended births were becoming more common. Mothers in rural Indiana, as well as the poorer immigrant population, however, were still dependent on midwives to assist in childbirth, much to the chagrin of the medical profession. In an attempt to encourage expectant mothers to give birth in a hospital, obstetricians and doctors waged a campaign against midwives, claiming at-home births put the mother at unnecessary risk. Doctors argued that a standardized medical environment with the latest technology increased the chance of survival for both mother and child. The campaign had an effect, as midwife-attended childbirths decreased from 35% at the beginning of the 1900s to under 2% within a few decades.

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Childhood

Girl Scouts meeting First Lady Bess Truman

During Stella M's lifetime, the concept of childhood was changing in Indiana and the rest of the United States. A romantic and sentimental notion of childhood had become dominant in the middle class, which expanded during the Progressive Movement and through the New Deal. Indiana senator Albert Beveridge introduced the first bill to outlaw child labor to Congress in 1907, which was controversial since many poor urban families relied on their children working in the factories to help support the family. Reformers such as the Indianapolis Free Kindergarten and Child Aid Society sought to create free kindergartens throughout the state for all children. Although the Great Depression caused hard times for many families during the 1930s, Roosevelt's New Deal included programs specifically aimed at protecting children, such as the WPA school lunch program and stronger compulsory education laws.

Children in Stella M's community played a wide range of games such as baseball and football, card games, or board games including Monopoly and Scrabble. Many also joined local clubs like the Boy Scouts or Girl Scouts (founded in 1910 and 1912 respectively). With the advent of movie theaters in the 1910s and '20s, some feature films were preceded by cartoons or serials aimed at children. Characters like Mickey Mouse and Bugs Bunny soon became popular in theaters across the country. Children's radio shows like Amos n' Andy and Little Orphan Annie also had large followings.

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Indianapolis 500, 1911

Joe Dawson crossing the finish line at the 1912 Indy 500

On May 30, 1911, the Indianapolis 500 auto race made its debut. Stella M was 5 that year, and likely heard about it from friends or relatives. The origins of the Indy 500, as it is affectionately known, began with Carl Fisher, an automobile dealer from Indianapolis who believed that the local automotive industry could use a speed track to test the effects of road conditions and top speeds on their vehicles. The end result was the circular track of the Indianapolis Motor Speedway, which begat the Indy 500 race—so named because the race would last for, you guessed it, 500 miles.

The first race drew in a large number of entries, due to the exceptionally high winning prize; more than $10,000, which was more than even baseball's highest earning player, Ty Cobb, could claim.

Unfortunately, the first race was marred by a death and a number of other misfortunes that threw its conclusion into doubt. Sam Dickson, a riding mechanic, was killed when his driver's car crashed and rolled. The driver; however, was ejected and survived. Later in the race, scoring was disrupted when another vehicle nearly crashed into the judging booth, causing the judges to flee for their lives.

Finally, when it was over, Ray Harroun was crowned the winner and received a cash prize of $14,000. The results were shortly called into question when the runner-up, Ralph Mulford, held steadfast to his belief that he was the true winner. Despite its inauspicious start, the Indianapolis 500 quickly became one of the most famous car races in the world, gaining much prestige for Stella M's home state in the automobile sporting community.

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Titanic Sinks, 1912

On the night of April 14, 1912, when Stella M was 6, the RMS Titanic sank into the North Atlantic Ocean. Many people read about this tragic accident in the newspaper in the days and weeks following the crash. The Titanic had been sailing at full speed when the crew saw an iceberg, but were unable to turn before it hit the boat's starboard (right) side. The crash and subsequent sinking killed more than 1,500 people and shocked American and European citizens, who believed the Titanic to be unsinkable. The lack of sufficient lifeboats also angered many people and prompted the establishment of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, which to this day governs maritime safety. It also led to the establishment of the International Ice Patrol, which watches the frigid seas for potentially dangerous icebergs.

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Diet

A potato casserole

The diet of the average Hoosier changed drastically during Stella M's lifetime, as newer technologies and scientific studies impacted the food industry across America. The Indiana landscape had once been covered in family farms, but as the 20th century progressed, larger farms that specialized in particular cash crops took over. Farmers were able to increase their productivity and quality, thanks to help from tractors and other innovative new farm equipment. The first supermarket, a self-serve store called Piggly-Wiggly, was opened in the U.S. in 1916 by entrepreneur Clarence Saunders. The convenience of being able to buy a variety of products at one store lessened the time Hoosiers needed to spend grocery shopping.

In 1900, the average housewife spent over 44 hours per week working on meals, but by the 1920s it had dropped below 30 hours. Store-bought cereals became a popular breakfast food, along with eggs and toast. Lunch became less hearty and would often include sandwiches, salads or soup. The invention of pre-sliced bread made fixing a portable meal even easier.

During Stella M's life the most popular meal combination was meat and potatoes, accompanied by cake or pie for dessert. Casseroles were another common dinner meal, and chicken had also climbed in popularity. Hoosiers at the beginning of the 20th century were more aware of the nutritional content of their foods. Companies started to boast of the vitamins their products contained, and families had even more access to fresh produce from all over the world thanks to new methods of transportation.

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Education

William Wirt, superintendent of Gary schools

Education during Stella M's lifetime was changing dramatically in Indiana and throughout the entire nation. In the first decades of the century, the Progressive Movement was spreading, and many reformers sought to improve the state's schools. During this era, education became mandatory for all children in Stella M's community, and a greater emphasis was placed upon providing quality education to girls. Schools were seen by many reformers as a place to instill certain values in children and Americanize the immigrant populations.

The city of Gary acted as a laboratory to one of these reformers, William Wirt, who was named superintendent of the Gary school system. He introduced the innovative "Gary Plan," which called for students to receive classroom instruction for half of the day, and hands-on instruction for the rest. The Gary Plan became the model for education in many urban centers throughout the United States until the 1930s. Those of Stella M's community who attended a Gary Plan school were broken into platoons that spent half the day studying subjects like math, English, and science, and the other half of the day studying art, industrial courses, or physical education.

Despite these reforms, many problems continued to plague the school systems of Indiana. A 1923 commission found that students in rural schools still lagged behind those in towns and cities in the quality of education they received. Early on, most rural students still met in single-room school houses for elementary school, before traveling to a larger school, if they attended high school at all. Buses became more common in the 1920s, leading to districts consolidating, as students from outlying areas were brought into the cities for school, and the one-room school houses faded away. With the ascent of the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s, and the migration of many African Americans to the state's industrial towns, there was a growing movement to segregate schools in some communities. Because many schools were based in a single neighborhood, most students attended classes only with members of their own ethnic community.

Numerous colleges operated throughout Indiana during this time, including Indiana University Bloomington, Notre Dame, and Purdue, offering an opportunity for higher education to Stella M if she could afford it.

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Lincoln Highway, 1913

When Stella M was 7, the Lincoln Highway—America's first transcontinental highway for automobiles—was constructed. Beginning in Times Square in New York City and ending in Lincoln Park in San Francisco, the highway took a direct route of 3,389 miles, and crossed states such as New Jersey, Ohio, Nebraska, and Utah. Before the highway existed, people mostly traveled by rail because roads outside of towns and cities were often in terrible condition. With the introduction of this highway, Stella M's car-owning friends and family no longer had to worry about train schedules. The highway's booming popularity enticed restaurants, shops and hotels to establish themselves all along the road. The Lincoln Highway revolutionized continental transportation and afforded many Americans the opportunity to travel, explore, and enjoy America's rich land from the comfort of their very own automobile.

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Notre Dame Beats Army, 1913

The 1913 Notre Dame squad

Stella M was 7 when one of the most famous games in the history of college football was played, pitting Indiana's own Notre Dame Irish against the Army Cadets. Notre Dame's football squad had long been considered a regional power, but was expected to lose against the Cadets, who were seen as a physically bigger and better team. However, Notre Dame's quarterback Gus Dorias and fellow teammate Knute Rockne had spent the summer practicing a new offensive innovation—the forward pass. Using this weapon, Notre Dame was able to stun the sports world with a 35-13 victory. This game popularized the forward pass, which had been a legal but little used play for years, by showing that it could allow a small-but-fast team to overwhelm a larger, slower opponent. The game also catapulted Notre Dame's program into the national spotlight, and truly began Knute Rockne's famed football career. With college football growing in popularity in both Indiana and nationwide, this victory would have been remembered by many in Stella M's community.

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White Hurricane, 1913

East 105th Street, Cleveland, Ohio a day after the storm

The Detroit News reporting on the storm

One of the worst storms in the Great Lakes region struck between November 7th and 11th, 1913, when Stella M was 7. The storm was officially known as the "Great Lakes Storm of 1913," but many in Stella M's community called it different names, such as the "White Hurricane" and the "Big Blow." The storm paralyzed the entire Great Lakes region and led to the loss of 18 ships and the deaths of at least 250 people. Few who lived on or near the lakes were unaffected by its fury.

The storm was the result of two weather patterns converging over the Great Lakes. The water in the lakes was relatively warm, and helped fuel the gale as it swept over them. Milwaukee and Chicago were buffeted by high waves, which destroyed breakwaters that had been built to protect the cities from flooding. Blizzard conditions swept over parts of Michigan, Ontario and Ohio. The city of Cleveland and southern Ontario were buried under feet of snow and ice; electrical systems were knocked out and it took days to clear the streets and return utilities. Even worse were those sailors caught by the storm on open water. Eighteen ships were lost, many with their entire crews. Eight ships went down on Lake Huron alone. The storm cost millions of dollars both in damages to coastal cities and lost ships.

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World War I, 1914 - 1918

Soldiers leave their trenches for an assault

When Stella M was eight years old, the First World War began in Europe. Although the conflict commenced in 1914, the United States did not become involved until later in the war. Many Americans, including members of Indiana’s German-American community, hoped for the United States to stay neutral. Months after winning a second term on a platform of keeping the nation out of the war, President Woodrow Wilson finally relented and asked Congress to declare war on Germany in April of 1917. Although Wilson stated this was due to Germany sending the “Zimmerman Telegram” to the Mexican government, proposing an alliance, many in Indiana believed he had been influenced by powerful American bankers who had lent Britain and France money and needed an allied victory to ensure repayment.

Indiana supplied 130,000 soldiers to the First World War, of which 3,000 were killed. Just as during the Civil War, a draft was instituted to conscript citizens into service. Those who volunteered were able to choose their branch while also requiring a shorter period of enlistment. America mobilized so quickly that it had only 208,000 soldiers serving at the beginning of 1917, but 3.7 million by November of that same year.

At the time, combatants received four months of training at state-based camps before being sent overseas to France. American soldiers were nicknamed "Doughboys" by the Europeans because they were seen as fresh and untested by combat. These soldiers served mainly in the French region of Lorraine and were involved in the heavy fighting that brought the war to an end in 1918—an Allied victory. On the home front, many Hoosiers turned against their German-American neighbors, believing them to be disloyal and possibly spies for Germany. It was a difficult time to be German in America, or to be viewed as an immigrant.

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Holidays

1905 cover of Puck Magazine featuring Santa Claus

Hoosiers like Stella M celebrated some holidays by following tradition, while also helping to create some new ones. Easter had its egg hunts, Independence Day had bright fireworks, and Halloween had costumes, but established holidays like Thanksgiving evolved, with an emphasis not only on big feasts and family gatherings, but on annual parades, shopping sprees, and football games. Mother's Day also became an official American holiday for the first time in 1914.

For many in Stella M's community, the biggest holiday of the year was Christmas. December was often a time of freezing weather, usually resulting in white Christmases. Like many other Americans, Hoosiers enjoyed decorating Christmas trees, buying presents for loved ones, and spending quality time with their families. One town in particular, Santa Claus, Indiana, especially caught the holiday spirit, and locals worked to answer the countless letters delivered to their post office each year by children writing to Saint Nick. It was also during this era that Irvington, a neighborhood in Indianapolis, began to host a yearly Halloween celebration that became world famous.

While Santa Claus had long been described as having a red suit and beard, a series of Coca Cola ads during this period helped create a more distinct image of the character that cemented itself in American culture.

During these same years, Indiana was home to a growing Jewish community, and many schools and government offices began formally recognizing religious holidays like Yom Kippur and Hanukkah.

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National Park Service, 1916

An early poster from the National Park Service

Stella M was 10 when President Woodrow Wilson signed a bill that created the National Park Service, a new government agency dedicated to the protection and conservation of America's most historic and scenic places. While the idea of conservation wasn't new in the U.S., the job of protecting large, established parks like Yellowstone had generally been left to the military. Now, within a year, Yellowstone and countless other popular destinations would fall under the control of the NPS, ensuring that Stella M and future generations could see America's history and beauty protected.

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Prohibition Bill Signed, 1917

Governor James P. Goodrich signs bill legalizing Prohibition in Indiana

Stella M was 11 in 1917 when Indiana governor James P. Goodrich signed into law a bill that enacted the prohibition of alcohol in the state of Indiana. This was two years before the rest of the nation went dry. There had been agitation for Prohibition in Indiana for decades prior, but the idea had grown in popularity since the turn of the century.

Some argued that banning the sale of alcohol would cut down on crime and improve the lives of women and children, who were viewed as most victimized by alcohol abuse at the hands of drunken husbands and fathers. Others, however, viewed Prohibition as an attack upon immigrant communities in the state, such as the Germans, who considered alcohol part of their cultural heritage.

Even before the 1917 law was in place, some counties in Indiana had already prohibited alcohol manufacture, sale, and usage. In 1908, Governor Frank J. Hanly signed a law that allowed counties to determine on their own as to whether or not alcohol remained legal.

Indiana also boasted well organized and active chapters of organizations such as the Anti-Saloon League and the Women's Christian Temperance Society. Although the state-wide law was passed in 1917, and the entire nation went dry in 1919, the conflict over Prohibition was not over in Stella M's state.

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Hygiene

A chamber pot

By the early 20th century, personal hygiene had become increasingly important to the average American. During Stella M's lifetime, most people began to bathe almost daily, and they were using soap specifically made for getting rid of dirt and odor on the skin. Americans were regularly brushing and flossing their teeth, thanks to mass-produced toothbrushes, toothpaste, and dental floss. After its invention in 1888, Stella M's friends and neighbors could also use deodorant to mask bad scents.

While most of the upper class had indoor plumbing at the turn of the century, lower prices on toilets, sinks, and indoor plumbing were reaching the middle class as well. In rural parts of Indiana, however, many Hoosiers continued to use chamber pots and outhouses.

During World War I, surgeons began replacing surgical cotton with a product called Cellucotton, due to its superior absorption. After the war had ended, Cellucotton pads were re-branded as Kotex sanitary napkins and were sold to women as a way of helping to improve feminine hygiene.

Indiana created the Division of Infant and Child Hygiene with the goal of minimizing infant mortality by educating citizens on the importance of maintaining a clean environment for the health and safety of children. Cloth diapers were still used, but were thoroughly cleaned to prevent the spread of bacteria or infections.

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Spanish Flu, 1918 - 1919

Soldiers being cared for during Spanish Flu outbreak

One of the worst medical disasters of the 20th century swept over the nation and Indiana when Stella M was 12 years old. Spanish influenza, commonly known as the "Spanish flu," first reached Indiana during the last week of September in 1918. Although the first cases were in Evansville, the disease soon began to appear throughout the state. This was a frightening and difficult time for people in Stella M's community. Victims of the Spanish flu were often healthy young adults, rather than the elderly, sick, and very young, who were the usual victims of other strains of the flu.

On October 9, bowing to the recommendations of the federal government, the Indiana State Board of Health banned all public gatherings. Churches remained open for prayer and meditation, but all large events ceased, and no public funerals were allowed. The city of Indianapolis closed down all public schools and canceled the city's Halloween celebrations, a move that was credited with saving countless lives. Many doctors across the state were unable to keep up with the strain the pandemic put upon them, and sometime paid for patient's medication out of their own pockets. Meanwhile, The Star newspaper in Indianapolis ran advertisements asking local women to take nursing classes at the Red Cross, stating that nurses were more important than doctors due to the lack of treatments available. By the time the Spanish flu had run its course there were 350,000 cases in the state and roughly 10,000 deaths. The severity of the pandemic left a lasting scar on many of the people in Stella M's community who lived through this dark and troubling time.

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German Banned, 1919

Governor James P Goodrich signed the Anti-German language bill into law

In 1919, three months after the end of Wold War I, Stella M's state banned the teaching of the German language to children in school, punishable by a fine of up to $100, or up to six months in prison. This law and others of its type where part of a wave of anti-German hysteria that swept over the United States before, during, and after the First World War. The hysteria was fueled by propaganda that depicted Germans as uncivilized barbarians who were a threat to American safety. The Russian Revolution also added to the paranoia as many Americans came to believe that all foreigners were radicals who wished to undermine the United States government. As the hysteria of the early post-war years receded, many of these laws were taken off of the books. In Indiana, the anti-German law was overturned in 1923 by Governor William Terry McCray. However, this law and the anti-German and anti-foreigner sentiment that it expressed would leave a mark on many communities in Stella M's state.

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Clothing

Men's sportswear in 1945

Flapper fashion

Outfits from 1910

As the 20th century dawned in Indiana, many newer options of clothing were available for both men and women, ranging anywhere from denim jeans and t-shirts, to dresses and three-piece suits made from natural fibers such as cotton, wool, and silk. As the era progressed, women's fashion began to rebel against the conservative notions of the previous era. During the 1920s, flapper dresses—low-waisted garments that were often black, beaded, and fringed—and shorter "bob" hairstyles showed Western contempt towards conservative clothing and the sexual norms of society. However, it was still considered proper to dress nicely when going out in public. Whether going to work, attending a sporting or theatrical event, or just running errands in town, men typically wore jackets, ties, and either bowler, boater, or homburg hats, while women wore dresses, wide-brimmed or summer hats, and either slippers or boots.

Clothing materials and styles typically differed by class. Rich and upper-middle-class Indianans were more willing and able to take part in the fashion trends of the era. Poorer people might own a single nice gown or suit, but men would more often wear working clothing, and women would wear simple dresses made of rougher materials. In rural areas, older styles predominated. The invention of new washing machines, including the earliest electric models, made washing clothes quicker and more efficient for some families, though only the wealthy could usually afford them. The majority of people still used a simple, corrugated metal washboard over a basin to clean clothing by hand with soap and water.

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Ku Klux Klan, 1920

A Cross Burning in Indiana

Many associate the white-hooded Ku Klux Klan organization only with the South. However, the group has played an important role in the history of Indiana, as well. The organization, known as the Second Klan, came as a result of director D. W. Griffith's romantic portrayal of the KKK in his 1915 film Birth of a Nation. Many were inspired by this film and sought to resurrect the organization.

One of these men was D. C. Stephenson. In 1920, when Stella M was 14, Stephenson was charged with organizing a Klan chapter in Indiana. Under his leadership, membership in the KKK soared; at its height roughly 30 percent of native-born white men in Indiana were members. Stephenson used these numbers to influence elections and public officials, making himself the most powerful man in the state, openly stating he was so powerful that "I am the law in Indiana."

The Klan was able to rise to such spectacular heights because it exploited the fears and anxieties felt by many of Stella M's fellow Hoosiers. Instead of targeting only African-Americans as had the Klan of old, the new group presented itself as an organization fighting for moral purity and Americanism. Its targets included Germans, Jews, Catholics, Socialists and others who were not White Anglo-Saxon Protestants. The influence of the Klan upon Indiana and Stella M's community would have been impossible to ignore in the 1920s.

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18th Amendment, 1920

Prohibition Agents destroying barrels of alcohol

In 1920, when Stella M was 14, Congress passed the 18th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, prohibiting Americans from manufacturing or selling liquor. The movement to ban alcohol was sparked by increased interest in temperance due to religious movements in the 1800s and early 1900s, as well as a temporary prohibition enacted during World War I to free up additional grain for food supplies. Supporters of the amendment hoped it would reduce crime rates and stimulate the national economy. Unsurprisingly, it had the opposite effect. Many Americans discreetly brewed and distributed their own alcohol, making bootlegging and smuggling lucrative businesses. In the end, Prohibition hindered the economy by demolishing thousands of jobs, and in 1933, 13 years after its introduction, it was repealed by the 21st Amendment.

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19th Amendment, 1920

Governor Gardner, of Missouri, ratifying the 19th amendment

Governor Roberts of Tennessee ratifying the 19th amendment.

When Stella M was 14 years old, the United States Congress passed the 19th Amendment, prohibiting any United States citizen from being denied the right to vote based on gender. Women had been fighting for expanded rights, including the right to vote, since the early 1800s, but didn't achieve this key goal until 1920. Now, in the years to come, Stella M and her female colleagues could finally have an equal say in the important political issues that affected their lives.

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First Public Radio Broadcast, 1920

Woman tuning a radio, 1923

Stella M was 14 years old when the first public radio broadcast aired. Up to this point, radios had only been used for one-on-one communication, although a number of ham radio enthusiasts had organized groups for small transmissions. The equipment was often bulky and required constant attention in order to make sure that it ran correctly. Following WWI, technological advancement had made radio more practical, but it still remained a plaything in the eyes of much of the public.

In 1920, the Pittsburgh company Westinghouse (one of the largest radio manufacturers in the nation) devised a plan to sell more radios. They decided to make a broadcasting transmitter that would allow radio owners throughout the region to tune in for different programs. To make this dream a reality, they hired Dr. Frank Conrad — a local ham radio operator who often played records over the air for his friends and listeners — to set up a broadcasting channel, KDKA. November 2, 1920, the day of the presidential election, was to be the first day of programing.

Listeners in the area who tuned in that day heard a reading of the results of the presidential election, where Harding decisively defeated Cox. The broadcast, although heard by only a small group of people, was a stunning success and caused radio mania to grip the nation. Radio sales soon exploded throughout America, and there was a rush to open up and register commercial radio stations in most major cities. The Age of Radio had truly begun.

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Religion

Evangelistic Billy Sunday

Religion played a vital role in the lives of many people during Stella M's time, giving them a sense of both purpose and identity. Mainline Protestant groups such as the Methodists, Lutherans, and others continued to be the dominant religious forces in Indiana during these years. The Jewish and Catholic communities were also growing, however—a fact which sometimes created friction with Protestant groups in the region. The most extreme consequence of this was the rise of Indiana's Ku Klux Klan, a hate group that thrived from the '20s onward, preaching racism and violence.

In most churches, women were banned from leadership roles, so they began forming more church-associated bodies such as aid societies and missionary groups. These organizations became major factors in moving forward some of the key issues of the 20th century, including alcohol prohibition and relief efforts during the Great Depression.

While some religious organizations in Stella M's community took aim against what they saw as "immoral" music and art, there were also church groups that were instrumental in helping form the Indianapolis Symphonic Orchestra and other important artistic pillars of the region. The arrival of the radio also gave local evangelists a new platform for speaking to their followers. One of the most successful of these was Billy Sunday, a former baseball player who became one of the most popular preachers in the United States until his death in 1935. Sunday often preached against the use of liquor and traveled across the nation spreading his message.

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Marriage

Marriage was a rapidly evolving institution during Stella M's lifetime. During the first half of the 20th century, different opinions about marriage were taking hold. These new views, which came to be known as "compassionate marriage," called for relationships to be based primarily on love between two partners, as opposed to matching social status or economic gain. As a result, older forms of courtship began to pass away, and casual dating became a popular way to meet a future partner. "Compassionate marriage" was heavily influenced by a group of radicals who criticized marriage as an institution that oppressed men and women by confining them to very strict social roles and trapping many in harmful, unhappy unions. Instead, they proposed a system of what they called "free love," where people could love who they wanted and have multiple relationships during their lives. As these more radical views blended with traditional ideas, the new concept of marriage began to emerge. During the first two decades of the 20th century, legal efforts were also made to redefine marriage. Indiana drafted laws which raised the age of consent from 12 to 16, and made marriage between first cousins illegal. Although "compassionate marriage" would become the dominate view of marriage during this era, many of the older traditions still held firm in some towns—particularly in rural regions of the state.

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Entertainment

Inside the Circle Theater

During Stella M's life, forms of entertainment available in Indiana and the United States underwent a period of great change. The introduction of movies with sound, or 'talkies', in the 1920s and the subsequent Great Depression in the 1930s spelled the end of many older forms of entertainment such as the Vaudeville circle of performers and the Chautauqua circuit. Many theaters, especially prestigious Indianapolis theaters such as B. F. Keith’s Theater and The Circle, phased out the older vaudeville performers and switched to showing only movies. Meanwhile, more families began to buy personal radio sets, leading to the golden-age of radio dramas.

Stella M's fellow Hoosiers also had a wide variety of sporting events to attend, such as college football, local farm league baseball, and high school and collegiate basketball games—a sport which would come to be widely associated with the region. The circus also remained a prominent presence in the state, as many of the major companies made stops there.

In terms of music, jazz continued its ascent as Indiana entered into the Roaring 20s, with Gennett records publishing many of the prominent jazz and folk artists of the era. The nightclub scene of Indiana Avenue in Indianapolis drew many of the greatest musicians of the time, and album recordings—played on a gramophone—allowed listeners to purchase some of their favorite tunes.

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Jim Crow Laws

Jim Crow laws in action: a segregated water fountain

In the wake of the Civil War, segregation legislation known as "Jim Crow" laws arose in Stella M's state and others throughout the South. Nicknamed the "Jim Crow" laws after the stage name of a white minstrel performer who appeared in blackface, the legislation was intended to keep newly freed slaves separate from established white society. As a result, African Americans in Stella M's community were forced to use separate bathrooms, drink from designated water fountains, follow strict rules of etiquette, eat at different restaurants, and, perhaps most critically, attend separate — and severely underfunded — schools. Controversial legislation and rampant racism also inhibited many African Americans from fully participating in the political sphere through a variety of means, including poll taxes and literacy tests; this was done despite the granting of suffrage to African American men through the 14th and 15th Amendments. Although some people in Stella M's community felt that these laws were unconstitutional or unfair, they would remain in place until the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and '60s.

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Scopes Monkey Trial, 1925

Anti-evolution supporters near the trial

William Jennings Bryan

John Thomas Scopes

At age 19, people in Stella M's community and across the country were captivated by what was known as the "Scopes Monkey Trial." In Tennessee, a substitute teacher named John T. Scopes was accused of illegally teaching evolution in a public school. The famous attorney Clarence Darrow spoke on behalf of Scopes, while former Presidential candidate William Jennings Bryant served as the prosecutor and advocate of fundamentalist Christian beliefs. Reporters swarmed the tiny town, allowing people near Stella M to follow the proceedings by newspaper. Scopes was found guilty, but the case served an important role in separating church and state in schools across the country.

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Bone Dry Law, 1925

Although Indiana had adopted Prohibition two years before it became national law, there were many people in the state who felt that the laws did not go far enough. In 1925, the Indiana Assembly, under pressure of the Anti-Saloon League and its local leader Reverend Edward S. Shumaker, passed the Wright "Bone Dry" Law. Unlike the constitutional amendment, the Bone Dry Law forbade the possession of all alcohol, even when prescribed by a doctor for medical reasons. However, despite these lofty goals, problems soon arose. In 1927, Arthur Gilliom, the state's attorney general, admitted that he had procured whiskey for his three children at the behest of his doctor when they were sick with pneumonia. Furthermore, he admitted to helping Governor Ed Jackson do the same. After hearing this news, Reverend Shumaker demanded that the Attorney General resign from office for breaking the law. However, it soon became evident that Shumaker was no more innocent; he had also purchased alcohol for his first wife and son when they were ill, and himself drank Busho Tonic, a medical elixir that was 23% alcohol. These revelations were the cause of much discussion in Stella M's community, as many Hoosiers debated the merits of Prohibition.

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Madge Oberholzer, 1925

D. C. Stephenson, leader of the Klan in Indiana and murder of Madge Oberholzer

Madge Oberholzer passed away on April 14, 1925, and her death sent shockwaves throughout Stella M's state of Indiana. Madge's death would lead to the arrest of D. C. Stephenson, the leader of Indiana's Ku Klux Klan, on charges of rape, kidnapping and murder. His arrest and conviction would fatally weaken the Klan's influence in the state.

Madge Oberholzer first met Stephenson at the inaugural ball for Governor Ed Jackson, a Klan backed candidate who had won Indiana's governorship. Madge was 28 years old, still lived with her parents and was manager of the Indiana Young People's Reading Circle. The two began to date frequently, and she began to act as his aide when the Indiana Assembly was in session.

On March 15, 1925, Marge was asked to meet Stephenson on his private train. Once there, she was brutally attacked, bitten and assaulted. Eventually, in an effort to make the attacks stop, she poisoned herself with mercury tablets. Stephenson panicked and returned her home, but it was too late. She died a month later, either from the effects of the poison, or from the abuse she had sustained. This attack horrified many members of Stella M's community and shattered the warped image of the Klan as an organization of supposed moral purity. Stephenson was sentenced to life in prison, but was paroled in 1950.

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Commerce

The steelyard in Gary, Indiana

The first half of the 20th century was a period of economic and industrial growth for Indiana, even despite the hardships of two world wars and the job loss of the Great Depression. Many of the cities in Stella M's state grew exponentially; the urban population exceeded the rural by the 1920s, though the state still had a larger percentage of farmers than its neighbors. The energy industry also continued to grow, as coal and natural gas mined in Indiana were used to feed the steel industry. Steel was so critical to the region that U.S. Steel actually commissioned the creation of the city of Gary to take advantage of the harbor on the Great Lakes and the local coal and iron.

The emerging automobile industry, however, soon became the biggest contributor to Indiana's economic gains. Local companies such as Studebaker, Duesenberg, Auburn, and Stutz were some of the first automobile manufacturers in America, and turned Indiana into an early center of car culture. Facing stiff competition with Henry Ford's companies in Detroit, many of the Indiana manufacturers turned to creating luxury automobiles in the 1920s and 30s, until they were crippled by the Depression.

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Medicine

Central State Hospital, built to treat those with mental health issues

During the early 1900s, Stella M's fellow Hoosiers benefited from advanced medical knowledge and evolved technologies that trumped those from generations past. New vaccines helped to virtually eliminate diseases like diphtheria, tetanus, smallpox, and measles. The greater availability of hospitals made house calls a rarity, and everything from check-ups to major surgeries were done with greater skill, safety, and efficiency. Mental health was now viewed as a medical issue, and institutions were built to house those with both special physical and mental needs, although treatments were often extreme and controversial. During this era, Indiana expanded its mental health care system by opening up several new institutions based on the Kirkbridge Plan, which called for large buildings to provide privacy and comfort of the patient while also supplying courtyards for access to a natural setting.

The Indiana University School of Medicine was also founded in 1903, becoming the fourth medical school in the United States. As American medical students began training in more specialized fields, it opened up more treatment options for patients in the decades that followed, as highly skilled experts in everything from dentistry to heart surgery used their abilities to save countless lives.

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Household

A turn-of-the-century light still in use today

Though housing in Indiana was rapidly evolving during Stella M's life, individual Indianan's homes were determined mostly by location and economic status. During this era, more people lived in the cities than in the country, although the rural population remained large and vibrant. Farmers in the countryside, especially those who were well-off, built larger wood or brick homes that sported modern amenities such as running water and electricity. In cities such as Indianapolis, the Tudor, Colonial Revival, and Neoclassical styles were popular among those who could afford to build their own homes. Poor citizens and recent immigrants still lived in tenement apartments that were crowded with multiple generations and had fewer amenities than other homes.

During this era, many modern utilities were becoming increasingly commonplace. Running water and indoor plumbing became available to nearly all residents by the mid-20th century, and electricity also became common in the cities, but did not reach many rural areas until the 1930s. The introduction of electricity revolutionized cooking and heating as families were able to heat their homes with electric heaters rather than relying on coal, wood, or steam.

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Eugene V. Debs, 1926

Debs existing the White House, the day after being released from Prison

Eugene Victor Debs died on October 20, 1926, at the age of 70. By the end of his life, he was a well known, if contentious, figure from Stella M's state. Born in Terra Haute, Indiana, in 1955, Debs served two terms as County Clerk and also represented the region in the Grand Assembly as a Democrat. However, he truly came to national prominence as the leader of the American Railway Union during the Pullman Strike of 1894, for which he was jailed. Debs entered prison as a Democrat, but left an avowed Socialist. Over the next several decades, he became the face of the Socialist movement in the United States, running for President five times between 1900 and 1920. He was also a loud and forceful opponent of America's entry into the First World War, and was again jailed after making an anti-war speech in 1918 at Canton, Ohio.

After the war's end, a national campaign began to have him released from jail, which was done by President Harding on Christmas Day of 1921. After his release Debs returned home to Terra Haute where he was greeted by over 1,000 cheering residents. Although in bad health from his time in prison, he continued to write and make speeches, fighting for the causes to which he had dedicated his life. Following his death, Debs' body lay in state at the Terra Haute Labor Temple. Not everyone in Stella M's state agreed with Debs' Socialist beliefs, but many still recognized him as a prominent and influential Hoosier.

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Military

A Browning automatic rifle

The U.S. military during Stella M's life operated much as it had for generations. There was a small regular army that was supplemented by volunteer units in the case of a national emergency or conflict. More locally, the Indiana National Guard was used to maintain order within its borders, with guardsmen often sent to help in case of natural disasters and emergencies. They were also occasionally called up during periods of civil unrest, such as the Indianapolis Streetcar Strike of 1913.

During the Spanish-American War and World War I, many soldiers reported to makeshift Indiana training camps, including Camp Mount outside of Indianapolis. Some training involved learning the new military technology of the period, including tanks, grenades, and weapons like the Browning automatic rifle. By 1915, the first "dogfights" between machine-gun armed aircraft occurred, and chemical weapons like mustard gas became nightmares of the battlefield.

During the First World War, a draft was instituted, just as during the Civil War. Volunteering allowed men to choose their branch while also requiring a shorter period of enlistment. At the time, combatants received four months of training at state-based camps before being sent overseas to France. These soldiers served mainly in the French region of Lorraine and were involved in the heavy fighting that brought the war to an end. After the conclusion of the war, investment in the military shrank and many men were mustered out as it returned to a period of peace. Many veterans battled with "shellshock" or post-traumatic stress disorder, but there was little recognition or appreciation for such conditions during the period.

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Penicillin, 1928

Alexander Fleming

In 1928, when Stella M was 22, scientist Alexander Fleming's petri dish started to grow mold, and a fortuitous lack of cleanliness led to the accidental discovery of the bacteria that facilitated the invention of Penicillin. Penicillin revolutionized the medical world by saving lives and reducing the number of amputations during World War II by halting infections. Fleming's invention meant that many of Stella M's friends and neighbors, who would have otherwise died of infection, came home alive from World War II. During the first five months of 1943, citizens only had access to 400 million units of penicillin, but by the end of World War II, U.S. companies made 650 billion units a month.

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Great Depression, 1930 - 1942

When Stella M was 24 years old, the collapse of the stock market began a decade-long period of economic hardships in America known as the Great Depression. The unemployment rate for much of the 1930s reached above 25% across the U.S., as millions were forced out of their homes and into makeshift shanty towns dubbed "Hoovervilles." The hard times and bread lines continued into the early 1940s, when the outbreak of World War II and new policies instituted by President Franklin Roosevelt helped stimulate job growth and turn the economic tide.

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Empire State Building, 1931

When Stella M was 25, the Empire State Building was completed. This iconic structure stood as the world's tallest skyscraper for 40 years and represented the economic strength and wealth of the United States. Stella M would have likely heard about the completion of this building by radio. Despite the looming cloud of the Great Depression, the Empire State Building gave Stella M and people around her hope that America would soon find a way out of its economic crisis.

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Paul McNutt, 1932

Governor Paul McNutt

When Stella M was 26, Paul McNutt was elected Governor of Indiana during the 1932 Roosevelt Landslide. A liberal Democrat, his election was the reaction of Stella M's fellow Hoosiers against the Republican Party that had been in power at the beginnings of the Great Depression. McNutt was born in Franklin, Indiana, and served as both an officer in the First World War and the leader of the American Legion in Indiana prior to becoming governor. He proved to be a strong and vigorous leader for the state during the Depression, championing laws dealing with banks, insurance companies and financial aid to the elderly, as well as the Gross Income Tax Law, which helped raise money for the state by taxing the income of retailers. He was not without his opponents, however; many took to calling him the "Hoosier Hitler" due to his governing style and the expansion of powers for the state government that he instituted. After leaving the Governor's office, he served as High Commissioner of the Philippines, and later as the first U.S. ambassador to the newly-declared Republic of the Philippines.

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New Deal, 1933 - 1938

A New Deal poster

When Stella M was 27 years old, America was plunged into economic turmoil with the onset of the Great Depression. In response to the struggling economy, President Franklin D. Roosevelt passed a series of acts and federal programs known as the New Deal. These programs included the Civilian Conservation Corps, which helped develop national parks and forests across the country and provided jobs for young men, as well as the Works Progress Administration, which employed thousands of Americans in public projects such as bridges, schools, and parks. These programs, although controversial at the time, provided employment and economic relief for many of the people around Stella M.

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John Dillinger, 1933

John Dillinger

John Dillinger was released from an Indiana prison on May 10th, 1933, when Stella M was 27, and shortly thereafter began a crime spree that captivated the nation. Dillinger was a native Hoosier and had initially been arrested for robbing a Moorseville grocer with an accomplice. The accomplice pleaded not guilty and received a two year sentence. Dillinger, however, followed the advice of his father and pleaded guilty, receiving joint sentences of 2-14 years and 10-20 years. The length of the sentence, coupled with the leniency shown his accomplice, caused Dillinger to develop a deep hatred for the police and justice system.

After he was released on parole eight and a half years later, Dillinger immediately robbed a bank in the town of Lima, Ohio. Although he was quickly apprehended, three of his fellow gang members broke him out, killing a sheriff in the process. After their escape, the Dillinger gang robbed several more banks, and even raided two police arsenals in Auburn and Peru, Indiana. At the time, America was suffering from the Great Depression and many members of Stella M's community viewed gangsters such as Dillinger as Robin Hood figures who were striking back against an unfair system. The newspapers latched on to this sentiment and, while covering the daring attacks and escapes, turned men like Dillinger into folk heroes. Eventually Dillinger was cornered by the FBI while leaving a Chicago theater and died in the ensuing shootout. Despite his crimes, he remains a famous figure both in his native Indiana and throughout the nation.

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Dust Bowl, 1934

Supplementing the disaster of the Great Depression, the Dust Bowl ripped through Colorado, Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas when Stella M was in her 20s. After decades of farming practices that damaged the land, a period of severe drought and high winds ripped the top soil from previously fertile farms, creating "black blizzards" that reached all the way to the east coast and often reduced visibility to around three feet. 250,000 farmers were forced to abandon their lands and become migrant workers on farms in places like California. Many who stayed behind suffered severe illnesses or death from breathing in silt particles.

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Amelia Earhart, 1937

In 1932, Amelia Earhart became the first woman to fly solo in an airplane across the Atlantic Ocean. Just fives years later, when Stella M was in her 30s, Earhart disappeared during an attempted solo flight over the Pacific Ocean. Her life and accomplishments tremendously motivated women and young girls of the time, who regarded her as a strong independent influence. Though no one knows exactly what happened to Earhart, many people have proposed theories regarding her fate, ranging from mechanical failure to alien abduction.

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Ohio River Floods, 1937

Aftermath of the Flood of 1937 in Indiana

Stella M was 31 on January 9, 1937, when one of the worst disasters to strike southern Indiana in a lifetime occurred. The weather was unseasonably warm that day, with temperatures reaching into the 60s. Overnight, the wind turned and the temperature dropped, bringing with it torrents of sleet and snow. The storm led the Ohio River to rapidly spill over its banks during the next several days, devastating communities such as Evansville, Jeffersonville, and Tell City. People in Stella M's area had never seen such a storm, and did what they could to protect their families and property. It was a frightening moment for those who witnessed the strange flooding and ice.

On January 24th, two weeks after the disaster had begun, Evansville was placed under martial law and people scrambled to deal with the flood waters. When it was all over, six southern counties had been ravaged by the flood, resulting in nearly 13 million dollars of damage

The disaster wasn't without its heroes. In the wake of the flood, thousands of WPA workers arrived on the scene and began providing aid to the community. They removed silt from the streets, set up shelters, and rescued people and livestock. Although the disaster was great, the resolve of Stella M's fellow Hoosiers shone through as they worked to rebuild the region.

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Transportation

Lexington Automotive Industry's R-19

During Stella M's lifetime, Indiana was heavily involved in the transportation revolution that swept across the United States. Behind it all was the development of the automobile by several inventors, including Indianan Elwood Hayes. By the 1920s more than 40 cities in the state produced automobiles. During these early years of production, only the very wealthy could afford to purchase a car, but thanks to the innovations of Henry Ford in Michigan, automobiles soon became affordable to most people. Unfortunately, Indiana, like much of the nation, lacked roads suitable for automobiles. Independent societies were formed to create the first national highways, including the Lincoln Highway, which stretched from California to New Jersey through northern Indiana.

The automotive industry eventually grew so strong in Indiana that a special track was built by enthusiasts in Indianapolis to test and race vehicles. Thus, the Indianapolis 500 was born in 1911. The race eventually became internationally known—a point of pride to Stella M's community and state.

Aviation also eventually became a more feasible mode of transportation throughout the nation, though it was too expensive for most people to afford until the 1940s. During this period, many older forms of transportation such as horse-drawn wagons and carriages died out, though the railroads continued to be used as fares became cheaper.

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World War II, 1939 - 1945

Soldiers storming Gold Beach during D-Day Invasion

World War II had a dramatic impact on Stella M's community. Hoosiers across the state reacted to the growing tensions between the United States and Axis powers with fervent energy. A full year before war had even been declared, the Emergency Defense Council was created to encourage preparedness among Hoosiers. At the time, the American military was small, but once war was officially declared on Japan in 1941, the size of the army increased considerably. Over the course of WWII, 338,000 Hoosiers served in the military, and 13,370 were killed.

Along with battling Japanese forces in the Pacific, Americans also joined the Allied Forces (including Great Britain, France, and the Soviet Union) to stop the rise of Nazi Germany and its fascist ally in Italy. The fighting would rage on for four years.

Indianans on the home front showed support by rationing goods and purchasing over $3 billion in war bonds. Many women worked in the ammunition and steel industries that were vital to the war effort. Additionally, many captured German and Italian POWs were sent to Indiana and put to work in neighboring industries and farms to help with the manpower shortage the war had caused. Nearly everyone in Stella M's community had a friend or loved one fighting overseas. While news reels, radio broadcasts, and newspaper articles told of various battles, telegrams informed families of the fallen. Finally, after the defeat of Hitler's Nazi regime, the U.S. elected to use two atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, killing tens of thousands of civilians in an act that remains controversial to this day. Japan did surrender after these attacks, and the war's end brought celebrations in the streets across America and much of the world. It was a time of great relief and joy for millions around the world. However, the scars suffered through the global nightmare of the war—and the gradual understanding of the full scope of the Nazi Holocaust against the Jewish people and other minorities in Europe—made it difficult for many people to ever fully recover.

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Holocaust, 1941 - 1945

Holocaust survivors in 1945

When Stella M was 35 years old, Adolf Hitler and the Nazis expanded on their already discriminatory laws by placing Jews, gay men and women, disabled people, and other "undesirable" groups in concentration camps across Europe. Over 11 million people, 6 million of whom were Jewish, died at the hands of the Nazis in the genocide. Those who weren't killed in the camps suffered terrible atrocities (including starvation and hard labor) and witnessed the deaths of loved ones. Jews and targeted groups in Nazi-controlled countries were forced to go into hiding or flee Europe to avoid meeting the same fate as many of their friends and family. Meanwhile, many families in these countries who weren't targeted by the Nazi government watched in fear as their friends and neighbors were persecuted or shipped away to camps, and some attempted, at great personal risk, to hide families or smuggle them out of the country.

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Communication

A push-button telephone, made to look like a rotary-style phone

Technology rapidly evolved during the early 1900s, allowing Stella M's friends and neighbors access to more information than ever before. The telephone, which was invented in the 1870s, became affordable and widely available for home use in the early 20th century. While some houses had private telephone lines installed, many relied on "party lines," which were shared with dozens of households. Though it made it difficult to maintain privacy, the party line helped to quickly share important information throughout neighborhoods. Although the rotary dial for the telephone was patented in 1892, it began to appear on home telephones in the 1920s, allowing phones to be dialed directly by number, instead of connected by a switchboard operator.

By the 1920s, many of Stella M's friends and neighbors had embraced radio as a form of mass communication. All stations were AM, until FM emerged in the 1940s. While radio remained vital for receiving up-to-date news or listening to music, television soon became the new centerpiece of most homes. The first television sets weren't available until the late 1940s, and even then, very few families could afford the cumbersome devices. For many years, only a handful of networks existed, and most TVs projected images exclusively in black and white.

Although it took time, the library system also grew in the 20th century. For the literate population of Stella M's region, the availability of books and magazines offered a connection to the wider world. For in-depth news, local newspapers and respected national publications like the New York Times and Wall Street Journal kept the public up to date on politics, economics, culture, and more.

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Pearl Harbor, 1941

Pearl Harbor Bombing

Pearl Harbor

"We interrupt this program to bring you a special news bulletin. The Japanese have attacked Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, by air." Stella M and Americans all across the country heard these words interrupting their favorite radio programs on December 7, 1941. As World War II raged in Europe, Americans had remained mostly isolated from the events. That all changed when Stella M was 36, as hundreds of Japanese bombers swarmed the Pearl Harbor naval base in Hawaii, destroying eight battleships and nearly 200 airplanes, and killing over 2,400 Americans. This catastrophic attack was a stunning, defining moment for Stella M and the country as a whole, as the U.S. was finally catapulted into the worldwide conflict.

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Atomic Bomb, 1945

Aftermath

Flight crew

Mushroom cloud

While Stella M was caught up in the unique mix of pride and despair that was World War II, she and her family had no idea that the United States government was on the verge of developing an atomic bomb to help the Allies' cause. The top secret research operation, known as the "Manhattan Project," culminated with the devastating bombings of the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, ultimately bringing the war to an end.

Almost immediately after the bombs were dropped, 39 year-old Stella M and millions of other Americans huddled around their radios to hear the details. Though some questioned whether the ends justified the means, many of the people in Stella M's life were simply relieved to know that a victory and peace were finally in sight.

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Politics

Governor J. Frank Hanly

Politics in Indiana were in a period of upheaval by the time Stella M was middle-aged. Following national trends, her fellow Hoosiers turned to a series of progressive governors. Leaders such as Winfield T. Durbin and J. Frank Hanly attacked corruption, attempted to suppress vigilante "white cap" groups, and supported the implementation of Prohibition. Governor Hanly was so closely associated with the anti-alcohol movement that he was nominated by the Prohibition Party as their presidential candidate in 1916. This was part of the Progressive Movement sweeping the nation, as many everyday people began to push for reforms under the federal and state governments to make them more active in the lives of the people.

After years of struggle, women finally earned the right to vote with the 19th amendment in 1920, although it was not until 1921 that the Indiana state legislature passed a bill allowing for the participation of women in state elections.

Around that same period, Indiana experienced the "First Red Scare," as fears of communism grew in the aftermath of WWI, and the racist politics of the Ku Klux Klan gained a following. There was also a growing awareness of corruption in government, especially following the many scandals of the Harding administration.

Later, when the Democratic Party gained favor during the Depression, the election of Governor Paul V. McNutt was a watershed moment in Indiana history, and he worked closely with the Franklin Roosevelt administration to bring federal relief to unemployed Hoosiers across Stella M's region. McNutt also greatly centralized the state government and increased the power of the position of governor.

The coming of the Second World War greatly affected state politics, as winning the war became the main focus of politics on the state and national level. In order to draw in needed workers on the home front, the Indiana General Assembly passed a fair employment act to restrict discrimination against women and African Americans in the workplace. Following the Allied victory, the focus of America and Stella M's fellow Hoosiers began turning towards the Soviet Union and the looming threat of communism.

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McCarthyism, 1950 - 1954

The execution of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg

Senator Joseph McCarthy

While Stella M was in her 40s, McCarthyism ran rampant across the United States. Started by Wisconsin senator Joseph McCarthy around 1950, McCarthyism is the name commonly given to this period of communist "witch-hunts" in which thousands of American government workers, soldiers, and entertainment figures were wrongly accused of being Communist sympathizers. During Stella M's life, many Americans lived in fear of a nuclear attack by the communist Soviet Union, and McCarthyism thrived on this fear. Eventually, Stella M's friends and neighbors heard about the execution of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, who were put to death for conspiring to share atomic secrets with the Soviet Union. The highly-publicized images of the Rosenberg's young, now-orphaned children, as well as accusations of antisemitism, caused the American public to start to rethink their support of Joseph McCarthy.

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Korean War, 1950 - 1953

U.S. soldiers at the Battle of the Notch

Stella M lived in the tumultuous years after the Second War War and during the beginnings of the Cold War. When forces from the Communist nation of North Korea invaded South Korea in 1950, the United States and the United Nations intervened, and the Korean War began. Since the American military had partially demobilized after World War II, it had to use the draft to encourage people to enlist. For many Hoosiers, enlistment was preferable to being drafted; though enlisted men served for three years and draftees for only 21 months, draftees were also required to spend five years in the reserves. Moreover, those enlisting were able to have more choice regarding the branch in which they served. Of the Indianans who served in the Korean War, most were draftees or those who re-enlisted following WWII. While it was uncommon for such units to be called to the war front, the Indiana National Guard's 915 Mobile Ambulance Company was sent to Korea to serve on the battlefield. The state's 15th Field Artillery Battalion fought in ten distinct campaigns in the thick of the conflict, including the Second Korean Winter, the First UN Defense, and the First UN Counteroffensive. Over 900 Hoosiers lost their lives during the course of the conflict. The war concluded in 1953 with an armistice that re-drew the border between North and South Korea.

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Polio Vaccine, 1953

Stella M was 47 years old when Jonas Salk developed the first successful polio vaccine—offering real hope to thousands of people affected by the disease across the globe. The shot originally consisted of an injected dose of inactive poliovirus. After repeated testing, the successful results created a media sensation, but rather than seeking to monetize his invention, Salk considered the vaccine a public service that should be available to everyone. As a result, this once deadly disease—which had killed 44,893 people in the United States, UK, and Canada in 1949 alone—was nearly eradicated over the next two decades.

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Brown v. Board of Education, 1954

Protests in favor of racial segregation

Ever since the Civil War, integration of black people into white society was a very divisive issue in America. Blacks and whites generally lived in different parts of town, went to different schools, and participated in different activities. While African Americans were legally considered to be "separate but equal," their isolated facilities were rarely equal to those of whites. In 1954, Oliver Brown sued the Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas for not allowing his black daughter to attend a white school near their house. The Supreme Court ruled in favor of Brown, leading to the eventual desegregation of all public schools. While this landmark decision was a step forward for African-Americans, 48 year-old Stella M and those around her witnessed white resistance to school desegregation, which often resulted in bitter defiance and violence.

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Milan Basketball, 1954

1954 Milan Basketball squad

In 1954 many people in Stella M's community were captivated by the surprise victory of Milan High School over Muncie Central High School to win the Indiana state basketball championship. Although Milan had made the semi-finals the year before, they were still considered underdogs to beat Muncie, which had won the four previous years.

Furthermore, Muncie was one of the larger schools in the state, while Milan's high school had fewer than 200 students. Going into the final seconds, the score stood tied at 30-30. Then, as the last second fell from the clock, Bobbie Plump, a Milan player, hit a jump shot to win the game 32-30. The victory brought a great deal of pride to the people of Milan, and many of Stella M's fellow Hoosiers viewed the victory as an inspirational tale. The story is still cherished by many in Indiana and became the inspiration for the hit movie Hoosiers[/] about 30 years later.

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Vietnam War, 1960 - 1975

U.S. Marines in Vietnam

America’s involvement in the Vietnam War was a source of contention for many in Stella M's community and in the rest of the country. The U.S. had been sending advisors to the government of South Vietnam throughout the 1950s and early 1960s in an effort to help curb the spread of Communism in the region. However, American forces did not become heavily involved until after the Gulf of Tonkin incident, in which the U.S. Navy seemed to have been attacked by North Vietnam forces. President Lyndon B. Johnson had initially hoped to avoid calling up National Guard units for active duty, instead relying solely on the United States military. This policy created an avenue for those of Stella M's male neighbors who did not support the war to avoid the draft by enlisting in the Indiana National Guard. As the war dragged on, Johnson began limiting deferments from the draft and calling up National Guard units to active duty. At one point, 88% of the infantry serving in Vietnam were draftees. Indiana's Company D (Ranger) 151st Infantry, a talented unit that specialized in jungle warfare, was also eventually called up.

The fear of being drafted created a vibrant anti-war movement, especially on college campuses like Purdue or Indiana University. Although most Hoosiers supported the war effort, public opinion began to turn as the conflict dragged on into the 1970s. Building pressure at home and abroad eventually forced the U.S. to withdraw its forces. In 1975, the South Vietnamese capital, Saigon, fell to North Vietnam, bringing the war to an end. In the end, over 1,500 Hoosiers perished in the conflict. The Vietnam War would cast its shadow over Stella M's community for decades to come.

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Mother dies, 1960
Stella M's mother Mary C Barber passed away in Fort Wayne, Allen, Indiana, United States at the age of 94. Stella M was 55.

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Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962

Soviet Freighter during the crisis

Peace protests during the crisis

The Cold War spanned the period between 1947 and 1991 when tension plagued the relationship between the Soviet Union and the United States. When Stella M was in her 50s, U.S. intelligence services discovered that the Soviet Union was sending nuclear weapons to Cuba. Many Americans were frightened because it allowed the Soviets to have nuclear weapons close enough to easily strike United States soil. President Kennedy set up a naval blockade that stopped Soviet ships from delivering nuclear weapons to Cuba. For 13 days, Stella M and the world watched Soviet ships draw closer to the blockade. During this time, both adults and children in the United States were learning about the possibility of a nuclear attack, as well as techniques like "duck and cover" to save oneself in the event of a bombing (though it is now understood that many of these techniques would not have worked). After 13 long, tense days, the standoff ended after peace talks between the United States and the Soviet Union, where the USSR agreed to dismantle their weapons already held in Cuba. Americans and people across the globe breathed a sigh of relief as the potential disaster was thwarted.

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JFK Assassination, 1963

November 22nd, 1963, marked one of the darkest hours in American history, as President John F. Kennedy was killed by an assassin's bullet while riding in a motorcade with his wife in Dallas, Texas. The tragedy stunned the entire nation, and brought life to a standstill in 58 year-old Stella M's community. Millions were glued to their televisions as news of the President's death, followed by the arrest of suspected gunman Lee Harvey Oswald, dominated the airwaves. The events became even more surreal when Oswald himself was murdered on live television two days later by Dallas nightclub owner Jack Ruby. For many Americans who'd gravitated toward Kennedy as a beacon of hope, the aftermath of his death brought about not just sadness, but fear and dread about the vulnerability of the country as a whole.

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Civil Rights Act, 1964

Throughout Stella M's life, and after the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Americans were forced to confront the realities of racial discrimination. In the years and months leading up to the passage of the act, race-based inequality garnered massive media attention with sit-ins and violent riots unleashed all across America. In response to the call for legal action, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 outlawed all racial discrimination in employment, education, and all public places. Though racial tension and violent clashes continued in the towns and cities around Stella M, the Civil Rights Act started to push Americans to act fairly and responsibly towards each other.

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Palm Sunday Tornadoes, 1965

Twin Tornadoes during the Palm Sunday Storms

On April 11, 1965, when Stella M was 59, a series of tornadoes swept through the Midwest, killing 271 people and injuring 1,500 others. It started as an unusually warm April day, with the storms suddenly appearing early in the evening. The town of Elkhart, Indiana, was hit particularly hard, with two tornadoes passing through the area within an hour. Sixty people were killed and 300 more injured in the town. The destruction was so widespread that President Lyndon Johnson made a tour of the devastation, visiting with grieving families in Elkhart.

The Palm Sunday outbreak remains the second largest cell of storms to strike Indiana, surpassed only by the 1974 Outbreak. However, the Palm Sunday storms killed more people than the later outbreak. The storm touched the lives of many, including Stella M's fellow Hoosiers, and it is remembered to this day.

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Indiana Dunes, 1966

Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore

The Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore was established as a park by the state legislature in 1966, when Stella M was 60. The quest to have the Sand Dunes preserved began in 1899 when botanist Henry Cowles first published an essay detailing the unique ecology of the sand dunes on the shores of Lake Michigan. Unfortunately, the region was heavily exploited by industrialization, and the dunes were being systematically destroyed. Over the next decade and a half, the locals struggled to have the region declared a national park. They almost succeeded in 1916, but America's entrance into the First World War meant there were no longer funds to set up the park. Finally in 1966, after years of struggle, Congress voted to set up the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore. It was a moment of great satisfaction for many of Stella M's fellow Hoosiers, as the park quickly became an increasingly popular weekend destination.

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MLK Assassination, 1968

The Lorraine Motel

Martin Luther King Jr.

Early on the morning of April 4, 1968, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. was shot while standing on the balcony of his room at the Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tennessee. The bullet went through his jaw and severed his spinal cord, and King was pronounced dead immediately upon arrival at a Memphis hospital. James Earl Ray, an escaped convict and outspoken racist, was later convicted of the murder.

Stella M was 62 at the time of King's death, and shock spread throughout her community and the entire country. Millions mourned the loss of the Civil Rights leader and worried about what his death would mean for the future of the movement. Ultimately, King's empowering speeches, encouragement of non-violent protests, and dream of racial equality would influence Americans for generations to come.

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Woodstock, 1969

Woodstock

In 1969, when Stella M was 63, the hippie movement was a growing force among young people in the United States, with many in Stella M's community identifying with the movement's opposition to the Vietnam War, promotion of "free love," and experimentation with cannabis, LSD, and other drugs. The Woodstock Music and Art Fair— held that summer on a mud-covered farm in upstate New York— promoted these same ideals, attracting an estimated 500,000 attendees and major performers like Jimi Hendrix, The Who, Janis Joplin, and the Grateful Dead.

Lasting three days, the peaceful but drug-filled and disorganized event came to represent much of what people both appreciated and disliked about the hippies. It also may have helped introduce Stella M and others to some of the era's most influential songwriters and musicians.

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Moon Landing, 1969

On July 21, 1969, when Stella M was 63 years old, millions of television viewers from around the world saw American astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin take mankind's first steps on the moon. Cheering at this historical achievement, the world listened in awe as Armstrong delivered his famous quote, "one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind." Beyond the sense of wonder, Stella M—as an American—likely felt some pride on this day, as the U.S. had beaten its fierce Soviet rivals in the race to the moon.

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Jackson 5, 1970

The Jackson 5

Although the Jackson 5 first formed in 1964, they came to national prominence in 1970 when Stella M was 64. The band was composed of five brothers: Jackie, Jermaine, Marlon, Tito, and Michael—all of whom grew up in Gary, Indiana. Their father Joe Jackson was a local steel worker and musician in an R&B group. Beginning in 1964 the brothers began to cover Motown hits and made a name for themselves on the club scene both locally and nationally. The true standout of the group was young Michael, who was renowned for his singing and dancing abilities despite his age. The band first signed with Motown Records in 1968, and went on to break out on the national stage in 1970 when they released a series of number-one singles including "I'll be There" and "I Want You Back."

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Watergate Scandal, 1972 - 1974

Richard Nixon

The Watergate Complex

When she was a 66 year old, Stella M lived through one of the biggest presidential scandals in U.S. history: Watergate. In 1972, President Richard Nixon was tied to a crime where former CIA and FBI agents broke into the Democratic Party offices, listened to phone calls, and stole private papers. Instead of facing impeachment, President Nixon resigned from office in 1974 and Gerald Ford became president. Seeing this corruption in their highest elected official, many Americans around Stella M had a hard time regaining confidence in their government.

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Stella M dies, 1974
Stella M died when she was 68 years old in Bluffton, Wells, Indiana, United States.

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