Nathaniel Nixon

1864 - 1921

Story

Timeline

Map

Childbirth
Childhood
Clothing
Commerce
Communication
Diet
Education
Entertainment
Holidays
Household
Hygiene
Marriage
Medicine
Military
Politics
Religion
Transportation

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Nathaniel born, 1864

Nathaniel was born in 1864, in Sunderland, Durham, England.

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England, 1864

During the 1800s, England experienced growing pains brought on by rapid population expansion. In 1800, 75% of England's population lived in the countryside, but by 1900, that same percentage had moved into towns. Urban centers like London flooded with poor men and women looking to make a living, although unsanitary and harsh conditions constrained the benefits of living and working in the city. New technologies brought on by the Industrial Revolution popularized manufacturing jobs, but they paid little.

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India under Crown rule, 1858 - 1947

During much of Nathaniel's life, the British Empire stretched far beyond the confines of the British Isles, or even Europe. The country of India, which had been largely controlled by Englishmen from the privately run East India Company for generations, was officially put under rule of the British Crown and Queen Victoria in 1858. As a result, Nathaniel likely had friends or relatives who traveled to India—whether as members of the military, government, or as teachers sent to help educate and Westernize the local population. India remained under British control until shortly after World War II, when it finally earned its independence in 1947.

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Childbirth

A post-childbirth scene

Giving birth presented a number of risks to the mother and her child during Nathaniel's era. With limited medical technology, complications occurred frequently, such as the child becoming stuck in the birth canal or the mother hemorrhaging at life-threatening levels. A midwife was sometimes called to the home when a woman began labor, though very often the woman's own mother or other female relatives were the only ones present to assist. By the time of Nathaniel's birth, male midwives and formally trained medical doctors were also allowed to enter the labor room, a development that broke a centuries-old custom, as the birthing process had previously been considered strictly the domain of women.

As scientific understanding increased, the traditional midwife was in some cases banished and replaced with an academically-trained doctor—particularly in progressive urban areas. Armed with innovations such as forceps and more efficient and comfortable birthing chairs, medical professionals eased stress on the mother. However, a lack of sanitation and anesthesia still made birth a painful, dangerous endeavor. While the mortality rate for children remained high—ranging from ten to thirty percent depending on the location—the innovations in technology paved the way for better tools and anesthetics, ensuring safer procedures for Nathaniel's descendants.

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Childhood

A young chimney sweep

Jacks

Greater access to schooling in the 19th century meant more children like Nathaniel were learning to read and write. While the working classes were slowly catching up with the wealthy on that front, the problem of child labor practices persisted. Many English children in Nathaniel's time were forced to work 10 to 12 hours a day, on farms and in factories. New child labor laws were passed to address the issue, but it took some time for the legislation to be properly enforced. Even up until 1875, boys, some as young as four, climbed inside chimneys to clean them. The National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC) was founded in 1889 and began helping children obtain an education instead of allowing them to be forced to work.

Work was often divided by gender roles, with girls learning basic cooking, cleaning, and other duties to help run a home, while boys helped harvest crops, hunt, and learn a trade. In some cases, corporal punishment was now seen as a last resort for parents, and they often used other methods of discipline such as denying food, limiting time with friends, or even embarrassing them in front of peers or family members.

When children were fortunate enough to have free time from both school and work, there were a number of popular toys and games to choose from, including tops, jacks, cards, charades, checkers, chess, and badminton. Wealthier boys and girls often played with intricate doll houses, clockwork toys, wooden animals, or collected tin soldiers.

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Education Act, 1870 - 1871

The Education Act, passed by Parliament when Nathaniel was 6, made proper schooling compulsory for children between the ages of 5 and 13. This act was intended to help Britain remain competitive in the world into the 20th century. For the children in Nathaniel's community who might otherwise have worked on a farm or in a family business during their formative years, attending school was now mandatory—an idea not everyone in Britain supported.

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Education

Victorian-era students at Trinity College

Repton Cross Boarding and Day School in Derbyshire

Through much of the 1800s, many English children were educated at church-run schools or at "dame schools"—in which a woman would run a portion of her home as a daycare while teaching her pupils rudimentary skills such as the alphabet or sewing. These options became less popular after 1870, when the state took control of schooling and set more stringent standards through the Elementary Education Act.

Boys of Nathaniel's time learned subjects such as technology, woodwork, and math, while girls learned cooking, sewing, and skills for motherhood. At school, students were kept in line with the threat of physical beatings.

Working-class boys around Nathaniel rarely attended school for more than three years because of the fees charged and the productivity missed by not plying a trade or working in a factory. One-third of children never attended school at all, and many never learned to read and write. Instead, they learned how to function on a farm or run a household.

Apprenticeships were a popular option for many young men in Nathaniel's community, as it allowed them to learn a particular trade or profession without adding to the financial strain of a family. Apprentices could start as young as 12 and received board, food, and clothing from their master.

Wealthier students, including girls, could possibly attain an education abroad or be taught at home by governesses. Young men could further their education within England at world-famous institutions like the Eton Preparatory School, Cambridge University, or Oxford University.

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Holidays

A Victorian Valentine's Day Card

Living in England, Nathaniel and his friends and family celebrated several unique and culturally important holidays. Like many other Christian nations, English men and women celebrated Christmas. The famous Charles Dickens novel A Christmas Carol inspired Victorian-era families to focus more on exchanging gifts and having a Christmas tree, adding to traditions like paper decorations and depictions of Santa Claus (also called Father Christmas), with his white beard and red costume. It also led to people caroling and sending holiday-specific cards. Burning the yule log—a large cut of wood taken specifically for the occasion—was another ancient tradition for many English families, thought to bring good fortune in the coming year.

The day after Christmas, known as Boxing Day, had its own set of activities. On this day, servants in Nathaniel's community received a Christmas box from their employer as thanks for the good service throughout the year. Another uniquely English holiday was St. George's Day, on April 23rd, as people across the country celebrated the saint's heroic slaying of a dragon by hanging flags and singing the hymn Jerusalem.

Every November 5th, Nathaniel's family observed Bonfire Night (today known as Guy Fawkes Day), celebrating the failure of Fawkes's plot to assassinate King James I in the early 17th century. Fireworks and bonfires illuminated the night sky, and celebrants built effigies complete with masks resembling the face of the very distinctive-looking Fawkes.

In 1871, England added bank holidays: four days of rest that coincided with the day after Easter; the first Monday in May; the first Monday of August; and Boxing Day. As immigration increased over time, the non-Christian population of England brought its own traditions, including Jewish holidays like Yom Kippur and the Muslim fasting season of Ramadan.

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Hygiene

A chamber pot

While people were beginning to get a better sense of the value of good hygiene during Nathaniel's time, the average Brit still routinely suffered the consequences of limited sanitation and poor food preparation. Indoor plumbing had not yet reached rural areas through much of the 1800s, and was only beginning to be introduced in cities, which meant that water had to be brought in from the outside when needed for cooking, laundry, or bathing. A lack of plumbing also meant no bathroom indoors, so many families continued to use an outhouse or chamber pots.

In the early 1800s, a lot of sewage was emptied into the Thames, culminating in "The Great Stink" of 1858, when the smell was so bad that the wealthy walked around London holding perfume-soaked hankies to their nose, fearing that the "bad air" would make them ill otherwise. Fortunately, by the end of the century, waste removal had improved and this practice was no longer necessary. Better plumbing and water heaters gradually revolutionized how people lived, as well, as regular bathing and the use of commercial soaps and cosmetics increased among Nathaniel's friends and neighbors. Even as conditions improved, however, the high cost of housing in many English towns meant that many working-class people had to live in cramped quarters, facilitating the spread of diseases such as tuberculosis and diphtheria.

Oral hygiene started receiving more attention during Nathaniel's life, as coarse, boar-hair toothbrushes were being manufactured and sold. Brushing one's teeth was still seen as more of a luxury in many homes, however. In terms of feminine hygiene, women around Nathaniel continued to use cotton cloths until manufactured cloth pads were made available in the mid-1800s. Baby diapers, or nappies, were also made from cloth and often cleaned and re-used repeatedly, sometimes leading to severe diaper rash.

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Clothing

Popular 1844 attire

When it came to fashion, Nathaniel lived during part of the heyday of the classic Victorian style. The Industrial Revolution made cloth manufacturing more affordable, and British society responded by embracing complex, heavily-layered, and highly-ornamented clothing. Both poor and wealthy women's daily attire included some or all of the following: a slip, a corset, petticoat, camisole, an underskirt, and then the exterior skirt and form-fitting jacket. The use of expanded hoop skirts came and went, but frills remained common, as did ornamented bonnets and caps on the head and parasols as accessories. By the late part of the 1800s, bustles were, quite literally, huge, as women used these hoop skirts to enhance their bottoms. Bodices were cut to hug the bust and torso down to the hips and, in some cases, down to the mid-thigh.

For the men in Nathaniel's town, silk vests (or waistcoats) and bow ties were often paired with a knee-length frock coat and patterned trousers with suspenders. Top hats were also very common through much of Nathaniel's life. Men's clothing included disposable cuffs and collars, which no longer needing laundering. Men not in the wealthier class wore more work-oriented clothing, including linen or wool shirts. They donned sack coats (long, with large sleeves) and trousers. Leather shoes or boots were worn, and those who worked in dirtier jobs, such as farming or mining, were known to tuck their trousers into their boots.

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Religion

The Canterbury Cathedral, the central place of worship for the Church of England

During Nathaniel's life, the Church of England stood as the official religion of the state. By no means, though, did this represent all English religions, as other forms of Protestantism (including Methodists), as well as Catholics and Jews, lived freely in the country—though tensions and conflict were common.

A great number of Nathaniel's friends and neighbors of every class habitually attended houses of worship and read their holy books. In England's early history, members of nonconformist religions suffered under the government's swinging pendulum, their rights only sometimes protected. For the non-Anglican religions in Nathaniel's community, though, the government increasingly allowed them to practice as they wished without any repercussions.

During this time, the Church of England dealt with a great many pressures, both from within and outside its community, to reform its ways. People were mainly concerned with corruption and favoritism within the ranks, which occasionally manifested itself with riots in rural areas.

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First Boer War, 1880 - 1881

Peace Talks Near Amajuba Hill

When Nathaniel was 16, the British fought a group of South African farmers in a 10-week war for control parts of South Africa. Earlier in the 19th century, the British Empire attempted to control all of southern Africa, but many Boers - Dutch, German, and French farmers - did not want the British controlling their land. When the British government seized their possessions and weapons and attempted to auction them off, armed Boers disrupted the auction and began the war. The conflict lasted for 10 weeks, and 405 British troops and 41 South Africans were killed. The British eventually lost the First Boer War at the battle of Majuba Hill.

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Marriage

Queen Victoria’s white wedding gown set the tradition that remains popular today

In 19th century England, men typically married in their twenties while women were often still in their teens. Rather than having relationships pre-arranged like in past generations, many couples met more organically at school or formal events, though most people still only dated those of equal social status. Before a wedding, the bride brought a dowry to the marriage, which for the wealthy included money, land, and goods.

During the ceremony, the bride wore a gown made of muslin, calico, or silk (for the wealthy), while the groom wore his best clothes, including boots and a cloak. Prior to the wedding of Queen Victoria in 1840, any bride Nathaniel saw likely wore pinks and purples, with a corset and crinoline in pastel colors. After 1840, however, women all over the country followed the Queen's lead and started wearing white. Women also carried a bouquet of flowers and decorated their hair or dress with more blooms. The majority of ceremonies were held in churches.

Society continued to uphold traditional family roles during Victorian times, with the mother raising the children and keeping an orderly home, while the father worked and provided for the family. Many families around Nathaniel raised five or six children. Although it was expensive, divorce was possible, with men able to divorce much more easily than women.

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Diet

An 1860s book of "modern" English puddings

During the 1800s, Nathaniel's diet was a reflection of his social standing. Working-class people generally ate bread, butter, potatoes, bacon, and other foods that were cheap and easily available. The rich could afford a greater variety of foods, including different kinds of meat and grains, and foods that took lots of preparation, like English puddings. During this time, many towns created piped water supplies that made water safer to drink, and after the price of tea dropped considerably, it became a staple in many English citizens' diets. Most people prepared food in an iron cooker called a range, which was considerably safer than an open flame under the chimney. Food was stored by being packed in straw and placed in a cellar, or by drying, pickling, or salting. However, after new rail lines developed in 1839, many markets started to carry more and more fresh produce.

The traditional "afternoon tea" was introduced to England in 1840 by Anna, Duchess of Bedford. The duchess often had mid-afternoon meals of tea, bread and butter, and would invite her friends to join her. From there, the event became fanciful. Wealthy women in the 1880s would wear gowns, gloves and hats to attend tea even at home, and served dainty sandwiches, scones, and pastries.

England was also famous for its English puddings. A common type of pudding was trifle, made from layers of custard, whipped cream, sponge cake, jelly, and fruit. One that was especially popular with children was the "jam roly-poly," a suet (mutton or beef fat) pudding made with jam that was rolled up and then steamed.

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Medicine

An early syringe

Nathaniel lived during a time of great medical progress, as increased understanding of human anatomy helped doctors and scientists develop better solutions for many of the diseases, infections, and unsanitary conditions plaguing the lives of Nathaniel's friends and family. The cholera and smallpox vaccines helped save an enormous number of lives in the late 19th century. Other medical advancements included the stethoscope, blood transfusions, syringe, thermometer, cystoscope, and the X-ray machine. Scientists and doctors came to a better understanding of how proper hygiene could decrease medical complications and the spread of disease, and most doctors now sterilized their tools, washed their hands when performing examinations, and encouraged patients to focus on cleanliness.

Doctors also developed new ways to improve their patients' comfort, and laughing gas, codeine, chloroform, and morphine decreased pain during operations. Other simple painkillers such as salicylic acid, the forerunner of aspirin, were made into pills and powders for easy consumption. This development allowed many members of Nathaniel's community access to inexpensive medication for even minor aches and pains. Others elected to purchase homeopathic "natural cure" pills and solutions not supported by traditional medicine. These products, then known mostly as patent medicine or "quackery," were sold equally by con men and legitimate pharmacies, and were popping up everywhere, delivering very mixed and controversial results.

England still suffered from industrial related illnesses such as "phossy jaw," a disease caused in miners with exposure to phosphorous. Occupations such as railroad work, especially for those who worked in the yards, were usually dangerous and often deadly.

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Military

A poster recruiting for the Royal Engineers, circa late 19th century

Although England had a professional military during the 1800s, there were so many wars—and colonies to maintain in the British Empire—that many young men in Nathaniel's country often ended up drafted into military service. Women helped the soldiers by serving as everything from nurses to spies, as well as maintaining the home front while the men were gone. Although women were not allowed to enlist in the army, some disguised themselves to fight with men in the conflicts.

As far back as the Middle Ages, English soldiers wore red for the color of St. George's Cross, which was a well-known English symbol. British foot soldiers and grenadiers (designated grenade-throwers) wore coatees (a waist-length jacket with short tails behind). Yeomen (originally light cavalry) wore red and gold uniforms, and the regular cavalry also wore high riding boots. Other units and divisions wore variants of the black, red, and gold uniforms. The Royal Navy, however, had no standard uniform from ship to ship for sailors, and each vessel issued clothing that comprised a uniform to its own sailors. The officers wore blue jackets and white waistcoats, wearing stripes on their sleeves to indicate rank.

After 1866, soldiers carried Snider-Enfield rifles, which were loaded at the breech (the area between the handle and the muzzle), making them faster and more accurate than muzzle-loading weapons. As needed, battle techniques changed, and soldiers adopted the American Civil War tactic of "digging in," or making earthworks or wooden breastworks to provide cover while fighting, rather than advancing in the open in straight lines.

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First Sherlock Holmes, 1887 - 1888

Sherlock Holmes

In 1887, when Nathaniel was 23, the Scottish-born writer Sir Arthur Conan Doyle published the first novel in his classic series of murder mystery stories. By this point, the estimated literacy rate through Britain had grown to more than 70%. Still, years would pass before the tales of Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson gained popularity in the UK and around the globe.

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Jack the Ripper, 1888

In the fall of 1888, when Nathaniel was 24, people in England were shocked and terrified by the accounts of the killings of the mysterious "Jack the Ripper." Between August 7th and September 10th, the Ripper murdered five prostitutes on London's East End, which was home to thousands of poor immigrants. Since the murders occurred in overcrowded slums, the police struggled to find the culprit. The gruesome and sadistic murders captivated the city and struck fear into the hearts of people across England. Even after the serial killings had ceased, the failure to determine Jack the Ripper's identity turned him into a source of London folklore for many years to come.

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Entertainment

The 1885 Whippet Safety Bicycle

Entertainment was an important escape from the rigors of daily life for Nathaniel's friends and neighbors. People from all walks of life enjoyed going to the theater to see plays, operas, and ballets. Folk music was performed everywhere from ships at sea to small country cottages, and usually involved traditional instruments like fiddles and pipes. The Industrial Revolution also gave rise to new folk songs about working life in the modern world, which eventually became more popular than the "old fashioned" folk music of the countryside.

Wealthier people could spend their free time playing chess and backgammon or fox hunting, fishing, and yachting. Others vacationed in Bath and Buxton to enjoy the health benefits of the areas' natural mineral waters. Bicycle clubs began appearing across the country, allowing Englishmen who could afford bicycles to get exercise while socializing. Indoor games were also popular, and many of Nathaniel's wealthier neighbors played a Parcheesi-like game called ludo.

Working-class entertainment often centered on less expensive activities. People in rural areas occasionally enjoyed performances by traveling groups of actors and musicians. Nathaniel's relatives also enjoyed playing and watching football, cricket, and boxing, which had only recently become organized sports. Rules were drawn up and matches arranged between British national clubs and foreign teams.

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Household

Norwich's Royal Arcade, designed in the Art Nouveau style

A gaslight

As new home technologies became more widely available, Nathaniel and his relatives could have enjoyed domestic comforts not possible a few decades prior. Across Britain, traditionally small timber homes were being joined by multi-room brick houses, which helped keep families warmer and drier in the winter. Both thatch and tile were used as roofing materials, with stoves and fireplaces fueled by coal and wood serving as the main sources of heat. By the 1870s, most homes had gas lighting in at least one room; electricity would not become commonplace until the early 20th century.

The wealthy usually had large homes with very cramped quarters for their servants. Newer, large-scale homes were typically built in the Art Nouveau style. By the late 19th century, houses with distinctively "Victorian" features such as turrets, asymmetrical floorplans, and elaborate ornamentation in brick, stone, or plaster had also become popular in Nathaniel's neighborhood. Both the wealthy and middle class could now purchase mass-produced furniture, and straw mattresses were often replaced by comfortable feather beds. By the end of the century, indoor plumbing and running water improved the daily routines of many members of Nathaniel's community.

Such household improvements came more slowly to Nathaniel's working-class neighbors, however. Outhouses and chamber pots had to be sufficient where running water was unavailable. The poor generally lived in tightly aligned "terraced" or "row" houses, with two downstairs and two upstairs rooms, with the downstairs back room serving as the kitchen. After 1875, new regulations required these houses to include more windows and square footage, improving home life for much of the working class.

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Transportation

An early train in Harman's Cross

During Nathaniel's lifetime, new modes of transportation made long-distance travel possible for a greater portion of the English population. What began with rivers and roads quickly evolved into canals and railroads, as both people and goods could be moved from one city to the next at record speed. Public rail travel first arrived around 1832, although the number of miles of train track was limited; dozens of railway stations were soon built across the country to support the locomotives. For those who traveled overseas, the development of new steam-powered ships in 1848 made crossing the Atlantic easier than ever. Since ships were usually beyond the budget of most families, it was the wealthy who had a considerable advantage when taking longer journeys.

Nathaniel generally traveled most places on foot, although horses, buggies, and wagons were widely used for lengthier excursions. As horses were expensive, many traveled by oxen, which had been available long before; although they were slow, they were very powerful. A bicycle craze captured much of Europe in the mid to late 1800s, reducing the reliance on horses or oxen and offering quick, affordable transport to the masses.

Perhaps even more impactful than the railroad was the development of an early internal combustion engine in the 1850s, which was eventually used in the first automobiles and new, faster ships. Additionally, in 1885, the induction motor was invented by Galileo Ferraris; Nikola Tesla also designed one, unaware of Ferraris' invention. This motor, also known as an alternating current motor, was used in every application where such a piece could be required. The world was changing all around Nathaniel, and speeding up as well.

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Marconi Invents Radio, 1897

Marconi demonstrating the radio

Following in the tradition of dozens of Italian scientists and inventors, Guglielmo Marconi began studying at the Livorno Technical Institute in 1894. Focusing his efforts on understanding radio waves, he had patented a basic system of wireless telegraphy—the radio—by 1897. Marconi's first radio waves were initially short, averaging only a mile and a half long. But in 1901, he was able to receive a wireless transmission from across the Atlantic, and kept refining his technology until he could transmit from Nova Scotia to Ireland. He received the Nobel Prize in physics in 1909. In 1912, the Titanic famously signaled for help using Marconi's invention.

Even after his initial successes, Marconi continued to study and develop his science, assisting in the creation of the British Broadcasting Company (BBC) and the development of radar technology. But Marconi would remain most well-known for inventing the radio, bringing increased enjoyment, safety, and information to Nathaniel's neighbors and relatives. Many members of Nathaniel's community soon could not imagine their lives without the existence of radio.

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Second Boer War, 1899 - 1902

When Nathaniel was 35, a large segment of the British Army was deployed to South Africa, where the British Empire was engaged in a territorial struggle with the Boers—descendants of Dutch settlers in the region. Within three years, the British had absorbed the two Boer-controlled states, but the methods they used generated a lot of controversy throughout the UK, as liberals criticized the army's use of concentration camps to hold Boer prisoners. Future British Prime Minister Winston Churchill was taken captive during the war, as well, but quickly escaped. In Nathaniel's community, the Boer War was seen equally as an important military victory and—by many—as an example of Imperialism running out of control.

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Communication

A rotary-style telephone

Technology rapidly evolved during the early 1900s, allowing Nathaniel access to more information than ever before. The telephone, which was invented in the 1870s, became affordable and widely available for home use in the early 20th century. While some houses had private telephone lines installed, many relied on community telephones, which were shared with dozens of households. This limited privacy, but made it easy to quickly share important information throughout neighborhoods. Although the rotary dial for the telephone was patented in 1892, it began to appear on home telephones in the 1920s, allowing phones to be dialed directly by number, instead of connected by a switchboard operator. By the 1920s, many of Nathaniel's friends and neighbors had also embraced radio as a form of mass communication. Home radio sets brought the latest news—as well as entertainment programming—directly to the public in real time. It was a wildly popular and important new technology.

Low-tech forms of communication also grew during the first half of the 20th century. Newspapers like the News of the World and the Sunday Mirror saw their subscription rates grow from around 3.5 million readers in 1935, to 7 million in the years after World War II. Writing letters was still as popular as ever. People could use new, efficient typewriters, along with traditional pen and ink, to correspond with friends and family across the country. Air mail was introduced in 1919, which used new airplane technology to deliver mail faster and farther. Although it took time, the library system also grew in the 20th century. For literate people in Nathaniel's country, the wider availability of books and magazines offered a connection to the wider world and opened up imaginations.

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Politics

King Edward VIII

For those living in Britain in the early 20th century, foreign policy dominated politics, as two world wars devastated the country and left thousands of families grieving lost loved ones. At the same time, the once vast British Empire was quickly shrinking, with pushes for independence in Ireland, India, and other countries, reducing British influence throughout the world. Nathaniel was also living during an important period for political progress in his country, however, as women fought for the right to vote and were joining the workforce as lawyers, police officers, and civil servants.

After wars and rebellions, Parliament gradually emerged as the dominant political force in England, with the monarchy shifting more into figurehead status. Parliament was the British body of lawmakers, similar to Congress in the United States; instead of the House and Senate, they had the House of Commons and House of Lords. The three parties dominant in Nathaniel's lifetime were Labour, Conservative, and Liberal. The Labour Party had interests in protecting the average worker from employer abuses and breaking up monopolies, while the Conservative Party believed giving large tax breaks would stimulate the economy. The Liberal Party was more progressive than Labour and sought social reforms, such as the ending of conscription.

Shifts occurred in both the royal family and political leadership, as King Edward VIII abdicated his throne to marry a divorced American woman in 1936. After falling in and out of favor with both the public and other politicians, Winston Churchill became prime minister following the resignation of Neville Chamberlain, who stepped down after failing to deal properly with Adolf Hitler and the Nazi threat, ultimately leading the nation to victory.

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London Olympics, 1908

Cycling at the 1908 Olympics

When Nathaniel was in his 40s, London hosted the Olympic Games after Mt. Vesuvius erupted and caused Italy to forfeit their claim to the event. Having only two years to prepare for the games, London scrambled to get facilities ready for the athletes and spectators. The great stadium that was built for events was soon dubbed "the White City" by dubious commentators, due to being built out of ugly concrete. Despite the poor turnout at the 1904 Olympics in St. Louis, over 2,000 athletes competed in the London Games and upwards of 300,000 people attended, making it a raging success. Nathaniel's friends staggered at the sheer amount of people who traveled for the duration of the Olympics. Not only did three times the number of athletes compete at the London games as did in St. Louis, the 1908 games also marked the first time that women were allowed to compete, although this was a controversial decision. There was also a conflict with many of the American athletes who believed that the British judges were treating them unfairly.

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Commerce

People lining up for rationed fish during Austerity in England

Over the course of Nathaniel's life, commerce changed with the rapidly modernizing world. Coins (known as shillings, pounds, and pennies or pence) were still common, but paper banknotes were frequently used, as well. Nathaniel's friends and family paid income taxes to help support British military campaigns and a variety of social programs designed to improve the lives of English citizens.

In the early 1900s, many people like Nathaniel still bought goods at small, independently owned stores that sold particular household items, but the era of the department store had also arrived in many larger towns, allowing customers to purchase a wide variety of products under one roof. Some of the more famous department stores were Harrod's, an upscale store that had been around since 1832, and Marks and Spencer, which had sold clothing and home products since 1884. Other department stores served particular areas, such as Atkinsons, a family-owned and run department store in Sheffield.

The British economy slowed with the worldwide depression during the 1930s, but it recovered during the second World War when new industries, such as automobiles and aeronautics, provided jobs. Despite the commerce boom England received in the 1940s, there was still austerity (rationing) in place to preserve materials and food for soldiers in the war. This meant that people tried to make the most of every item they got and reused what they could.

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National Insurance Act, 1911

Nathaniel was in his 40s when the English Parliament passed the National Insurance Act. Those who made under 160 pounds per year paid 4 pence per week for the insurance, which allowed them to take sick leave and still be paid. Unemployment insurance also started during this time, which gave 7 shillings per week for up to 15 weeks of unemployment. These new insurance programs gave Nathaniel's countrymen peace of mind, and allowed people all across Britain to not worry about being unemployed or getting sick.

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Titanic Sinks, 1912

On the night of April 14, 1912, when Nathaniel was 48, the RMS Titanic sank into the North Atlantic Ocean. Many people read about this tragic accident in the newspaper in the days and weeks following the crash. The Titanic had been sailing at full speed when the crew saw an iceberg, but were unable to turn before it hit the boat's starboard (right) side. The crash and subsequent sinking killed more than 1,500 people and shocked American and European citizens, who believed the Titanic to be unsinkable. The lack of sufficient lifeboats also angered many people and prompted the establishment of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, which to this day governs maritime safety. It also led to the establishment of the International Ice Patrol, which watches the frigid seas for potentially dangerous icebergs.

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World War I, 1914 - 1918

When Nathaniel was 50 years old, the United Kingdom entered The Great War, later to be known as World War I. Great Britain joined with France and Russia to create the Triple Entente Alliance and fight against the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. This international conflict destroyed Europe and introduced millions to the horrors of war. Thousands of brave young men in Nathaniel's community went off to war and participated in grisly trench warfare, with rampant disease and hellish conditions. Many countries commonly used biological weapons during World War I, painfully killing numerous British soldiers. These poisonous chemicals, such as mustard gas and chlorine, caused violent coughing, lung damage, and even death.

Back home, women filled men's jobs after they left for war. Threats of attack terrified Nathaniel's community, who worried about the potential of a Zeppelin air raid. Some of Nathaniel's neighbors even heard bombs and gunshots echoing across the English channel.

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Spanish Flu, 1918

Soldiers with the Spanish Flu in a hospital ward

In 1918, an epidemic of Spanish Flu in the UK added to the culture of fear that World War I had already created. For Nathaniel, 54 at the time, the flu's devastating effects would have been hard to escape—whether just seeing the death tolls in the newspapers or hearing about friends and relatives suffering with it. In all, some 500 million people were infected, with 30 to 50 million perishing. In major cities like Sheffield, England, over 300 people were dying each week, leading to school closings, overworked emergency services, and even a widespread coffin shortage.

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Post-War Unemployment, 1921

Unemployed men in search of work

After the devastation of World War I, many of those around Nathaniel found themselves without work, fearful of continued unemployment and seeing their families starve without the food supplied by a steady income. When Nathaniel was 57 the British government was drowning in war debts, and unemployment levels rarely dipped below 1 million. They reached a peak of 3 million in 1933, which effected roughly 20% of the working population.

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Nathaniel dies, 1921

Nathaniel died when he was 57 years old in Sunderland, Durham, England.

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» Saving and Printing the Story

Subscribers can download and print the story, by clicking on the "Save and Print" link on the story page. This will generate the PDF and open it in a window, where you can save or print.

» Adding Immigration

On the story, click "Add to Story"
Click "Add Immigration/Relocation"
Enter the details, and click "Save"

» Adding a Residence

On the story, click "Add to Story"
Click "Add Residence"
Enter the details, and click "Save"

» Add a Child, Spouse, Sibling

To add a child, spouse, or sibling to a person on the family tree:

Center that person on the tree, by clicking on the (tree) icon.
Click on "Add Spouse", "Add Child", or "Add Sibling"

» Delete a Tree

To delete a family tree:

On the "Stories" page, click on the tree to open the tree
Click on the edit (pencil) icon, and then "Delete this Tree"

» Edit a Person on the Tree

To edit the information of a person on the tree, click on the person's box. This will open the edit form. Make any changes, then click "Save and Close".

» Remove a Story Section

On the story, click "Edit" on the section you wish to remove
Click "Hide this from the story"

» Dots on Children and Spouses

The dots on spouses and children help to indicate the link between the parent and the child. A person may have multiple spouses, and multiple children from each spouse. The color of the dots links the child to the parent.

» Add a Nickname

If your ancestor had a nickname or a given name that is preferred to be used in the story, you can add a nickname to the person:

Click on the person on the family tree
Click on the "Add Nickname" link
Add the nickname, then click "Save and Close"

Viewing the story will now show the preferred nickname in the narrative.

» How Do I Subscribe?

Visit the Subscribe page to learn about pricing, options, and to subscribe.

» Sharing on Facebook

Stories are easy to share on Facebook. On the story page, click on the "Share" button, then the Facebook icon. This will share the story page, and create an picture of the story to be shared. The Facebook link will link to the story page on HistoryLines.

» Sharing on Blogs

There are two ways to share on a blog:

PREVIEW. Post a preview image of the story, linking to the full story on HistoryLines. This is a snapshot view of the story, which will not change.
EMBED. Embed the story in an iframe on your blog. This will be a live version of the story, which will automatically update as you edit it on HistoryLines.

Instructions for both of these options are found on the "Share" link on the story page.

» Finding People on a Tree

Whether you imported a large GEDCOM file, or built a large tree, you can easily search the tree to find ancestors you are interested in. The search field is right below the name of the tree on the "Trees" page.

Matching ancestors will automatically appear as you type. Clicking on a matching name will load the tree with them at the center. To make an individual the permanent starting point for the tree, click on the person, then "Set as Tree Starting Point".

» Importing a tree from Ancestry

First, export your tree from Ancestry as a GEDCOM file. On Ancestry.com, go to your Tree Settings (in the drop-down menu under your tree name) and in the Tree info tab, look over to the right where it says Manage your tree. Click on Export tree. Once you have downloaded the GEDCOM file from Ancestry, you can import it into HistoryLines. On the "Stories" page, click on "Import a GEDCOM File", then select the file, name it, and click "Upload GEDCOM". HistoryLines will then create your family tree from that GEDCOM file.

» Importing a tree from MyHeritage

First, export your tree from MyHeritage as a GEDCOM file. Click here: Instructions

Once you have downloaded the GEDCOM file from MyHeritage, you can import it into HistoryLines. On the "Stories" page, click on "Import a GEDCOM File", then select the file, name it, and click "Upload GEDCOM". HistoryLines will then create your family tree from that GEDCOM file.

» Importing a tree from FamilySearch

HistoryLines can import your tree directly from FamilySearch. On the "Stories" page, click on "Import from FamilySearch". You will be directed to the FamilySearch login page, to sign in, then back to HistoryLines, which will automatically download your family tree into HistoryLines.
Any time you make changes to your tree on FamilySearch, come back to HistoryLines, go to your family tree, click on the person you wish to update, then click on "Update from FamilySearch". The person will be updated with the latest information from FamilySearch.

» Arranging Photos in Story Sections

Each story section can contain up to 10 photos. You can re-arrange, rotate, delete, and add photos on the "Edit" or "Personalize" on any story section. The first photo in the list will display as the large photo in the story. You can also add captions that will appear in the large view, and in the exported PDF.

» Importing a tree from RootsMagic, Family Tree Builder, and other software

First, export your tree from your software problem as a GEDCOM file. (See your software guide for instructions)

Once you have downloaded the GEDCOM file from your software program, you can import it into HistoryLines. On the "Stories" page, click on "Import a GEDCOM File", then select the file, name it, and click "Upload GEDCOM". HistoryLines will then create your family tree from that GEDCOM file.

» How do I stop a subscription?

Email us if you would like to make changes to your subscription

» How do I update my payment information?

Go to your "Account" page, click on "Payment Information", then make any needed changes.

Intro

Tree Basics

Importing from FamilySearch Importing GEDCOM Creating PDF

Ancestors

Siblings

Spouses

Children

You can leave this page while GEDCOM file is imported.